Foundations of Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Foundations of Human Resource Management - Essay Example Moreover, the globalization in the business world diverted the attention of managers and owners of companies towards comprehending relationships and interests of customers with the company. For this reason, many times employees’ interests were ignored and the increasing pressure of competition and customer satisfaction further amplified this practice of managers (Marchington, 2008). HRM practices of many companies illustrate that, company’s success is not solely dependent on its quality of product and services but also on its workplace environment and employer-employee relationship. On this basis, it is pertinent to develop an understanding regarding the nature of employment relationship within an organization, and it effects on the perception of employees about the company (Sisson, 2010). In comparison of today’s corporate environment with that of some four decades ago, a major change in employees’ practices can be observed. Employee unions have been weak ened in the recent times and their power over company’s policies has also been reduced. Low wages and more work are consequences of the change in business environment and have changed the attitude of employees towards their company too. Moreover, the turnover ratio of employees has also increased significantly over the years, particularly in the Western countries. These factors amplify the need of understanding employment relations in the light of contemporary environment and challenges in the globalized business society (Sisson, 2010). Nature of the Employment Relationship An existing dilemma in the corporate environment today is choosing between production-oriented management and people-oriented management. For production management, the hiring and firing of personnel are on the basis of target meeting and providing benefits to the sales or reputation of the company. On the other hand, people oriented management is concern with the code of conduct and personal practices of the labor force. These management practices define the nature of the organization and its interest towards employment relationship. The problem with the nature of the employment relation is that at any time either the interest of employees or the interest of the organization are been compromised (Williams & Smith, 2010). When the company is outsourcing resources, it is paying for the quality of the product the other company is offering. However, in the case of employment, the deal is between wage and the work done by the employees. Therefore, considering this relation between the employer and employees as solely contractual is not appropriate. It is because in a commercial contract, both parties have more or less equal position in the contract and have the power of denial or asking for accountability. Contrary to this, employees working in an organization have fewer power in the contact and are oblige to perform whatever been asked for the sake of money. The commonly heard terms of work pressure, offensive work environment and negligence of employee rights are thus the consequences of an imbalance in the contractual standings of the two parties (Budd, 2004). Interests of both employer and employees also hold an important place in formulating the nature of the employment relation. Interests of the employer are to provide the company’s product to its customers at the right quality, price and time. On the other han

Story of an hour Essay Example for Free

Story of an hour Essay ?Prompt: Read â€Å"The Story of an Hour† carefully. Examine the protagonist’s attitude about the death of her husband. How is this attitude revealed and how does it contribute to the meaning of the story? Authors reveal characters attitudes through different literary devices. In â€Å"The Story of an Hour†, the author Kate Chopin, uses irony to reveal Mrs. Mallard’s attitude toward her new husband’s death. Chopin first describes in the story how a typical woman might respond to her husband’s death. â€Å"She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. † Most women would have been in shock and not want to accept the fact that their husband had indeed passed away. However, Mrs. Mallard had a rather ironic reaction. She wept suddenly and wanted to be alone. This revealed she was not like most women and had a rather peculiar view about her husband’s death. As the reader continues, they discover more irony into Mrs. Mallard’s attitude. After she has retreated to a room to isolate herself from the others, she sits in a chair facing a window and whispers to herself, â€Å"Free, free, free! † No widow would whisper that only minutes after their husbands death, if ever at all. Though she knows her husband had loved her, and she had loved him, she had felt trapped inside their marriage. Now recognizing she has regained her freedom, her sense of entrapment diminishes. The irony continues as the reader learns Mrs. Mallard’s husband had not actually died. Not only is the reader in shock, but so is Mrs. Mallard. So shocked in fact, that she dies at her husband’s arrival. â€Å"When the doctor came they said she had died of a heart disease – of joy that kills. † Mrs. Mallard had actually died because for one hour she actually got to live with true freedom. Most women would be overwhelmed with joy that their husband was alive, where as Mrs. Mallard has more of an ironic reaction. She had realized at the sight of her husband that her glimpse of freedom and joy was over, and she could not go back to living under her husband’s will. Her final attitude towards the death of Mr. Mallard is revealed, Mrs. Mallard was happier as a widow. Kate Chopin uses irony as a literary device to reveal her character, Mrs. Mallard’s attitude towards her husband’s death.

e-books Essay -- Library Science, Myilibrary, Netlibrary

The library and information centres have undertaken collection management of printed books and now challenges in developing collection of electronic resources (e-resources) are waiting. Electronic books (e-books) consist of printed books being digitized or born digitally, the starting rise of new electronic formats. The increase number of e-books especially in UK also brings challenges to the publishers and aggregators, the importance in managing and promoting â€Å"e-books as the new electronic medium† (Armstrong and Lonsdale 2005). This essay will look at issues being addressed surrounding the management and promoting the e-books. One of the issues to be addressed in managing e-books is the selection and acquisition e-books. Librarians especially the academic librarians need to concern on selecting and acquisition new e-books, e-textbooks and titles associated to the students’ fields and demands. The librarians should train in considering the demands of e-books for distance learning, placements students and selecting printed books as back up to e-books’ (Armstrong and Lonsdale 2009). Acquiring the e-books from publishers and aggregators become issues in managing the e-books. The pricing and business model through subscription provides easy methods and ‘aggregators would be more attractive option than through publishers’ (Armstrong, Edwards and Lonsdale 2002). For the writer, e-book aggregators such as NetLibrary and Credo Reference give more advance access and tools for library, user of groups, relevance information and formats of e-book availability in pdf or web. However, subscript ions of e-books can be difficult. Libraries want to have ‘fewer complexes models and fair pricing structures’ (Ball 2009) and Edwards (2001) summari... ...ons. It is recommended stakeholders and JISC e-BOOK Working Group (Armstrong and Lonsdale 2005) are working together for effectively promoting strategies for e-books to all libraries. The e-book collections are no longer close entities but open widely to users. The libraries especially the academic libraries should concern on selecting e-books references for students and researchers. Issues concerned including the consideration giving effective ways on access and promotion need to be accounted. However, ‘Usage and licensing conditions vary widely and are not always library-friendly’ (Ball 2009). Licensing and bibliographical access still the crucial challenges for collection managements especially in relates to cost and legal legislate deposits. All the issues discussed above come up with literatures and approaches to issues of managing e-book collections.

Abridged Literature Review

Many institutions seek authentic and ethical leadership personalities, as a widening body of literature addresses the styles of leadership and their perceived outcome in institutional performance. Servant-leadership, coined by Robert Greenleaf (1970), has spanned a substantial amount of literal interest (SanFacon & Spears, 2010) but there lacks enough empirical evidence regarding the actual demonstration and utilization of servant- leadership in institutions (Crippen, 2005).Worth noting is that practices in most of the current organizations today are geared towards individual interests, and imbedding these profit goals with servant-leadership seems mythical. Various leadership models are applied in education and business institutions. These include servant-leadership, transformational leadership and business leadership models (Hawkins, 2009). Servant-leadership is the most desired model for educational leadership because education imparts the lives of people in all aspects in both in dividual and societal life (Crippen, 2005; Normore, 2010).While campaigning for board membership at schools, most aspiring leaders promise to give back to the society, an admirable quality of a servant-leader. However, as Cassel and Holt (2008) establish, servant-leadership exists only in a literal sense in schools, and there is still a lot to be done as far as actualizing servant-leadership is concerned. Currently, schools are out to seek ways of improving the quality of education and much faith is based on servant- leadership for this objective (Crippen, 2005b; Silva, 2010).Proprietorship in higher education is in existence today, compromising the quality of leadership, yet exemplified real life situations of servant-leadership can be demonstrated through educational leadership of outstanding, highly regarded leaders like Dr. Jim Otten. Concepts of leadership are taught and at the same time practiced in education, and therefore it is important to analyze how servant- leadership ar ticulates with leadership in the education sector. The servant-leadership traits coined by Spears (Crippen, 2005a.) include; listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of others and building community, and have been identified in various literatures. Cassel and Holt (2008) humorously point out that being an unpaid member of the school board does not guarantee one to be a servant-leader, as is the situation in schools, but the ability to exercise the ten innate qualities of leadership. These qualities have been defined by Crippen (2005b. ) through combining the description of other several authors.Listening involves paying a high level of attentiveness and commitment in listening. Boyum (2008) and Crippen (2005) draws the description of servant-leadership from the historical and philosophical works of Greenleaf whereby a servant-leader is described as one who has the innate value and desire to serve others. This indicates that a servant-leader would prioritize the needs of others before the individual self, with the desire to see the followers excel in body, mind and spirit, as a result of their leadership.The servant-leader therefore possesses one of the traits described by Spear (1998) and that is commitment to the growth of others. Additionally, Boyum (2008) highlights two distinguishing features of effective leadership, as being built on relational and interpersonal perspectives. Serving others mean that one has to relate with the followers at personal level, identify and meet their needs through the leadership process. Transformational, transactional and servant-leadership all meet the aspects of interpersonal and interrelation leadership (Boyum, 2008).However, while transformational and transactional leadership encourage interrelationships for the sake of achieving the goals of the leader, servant-leadership focuses on the goals of the followers (Buyom, 2008; Hawkins, 2009; Whale , 2004). How then can the model of servant-leadership be applicable in educational institutes considering that the control-kind of traditional leadership method is rooted in our systems, and that profit-making has become the main center of focus in the institutions? According to Crippen (2005b.) the answer lies in Greenleaf’s philosophy where teachers are cited to have sufficient latitude to nurture the model in young people. Higher education institutes have been faced with leadership crises over the years. According to Normore (2010), environmental pressure changes brought about by globalization, competition and technology among other aspects warrants the change in leadership tactics at the higher education institutes. However, higher education institutes have been at the forefront in teaching and recommending leadership practices, but reluctant in embracing favorable leadership models for their own practice.Normore (2010) reviews the work of Michael Fullan and Geoff Scott ( 2009) who assert that cultural change in the institutions and capacity of leadership must mirror each other. It is only through proactive leadership that the higher education institutions can effectively handle the growing challenges facing the institutions. A proactive leader is one who takes part in the leadership process through subjectivity in the activities of the followers. On the other hand, transactional kind of leadership involves control and creates a sharp distinction between the leaders and the subordinates.Transactional leadership therefore, does not involve being proactive because all the leader has to do is command or give orders of which the subordinates must follow without questioning or doubt, despite whether the outcome is beneficial or disastrous. This kind of leader as cited by Normore (2010) through the works of Fullan and Scott is not equipped to handle the current challenges facing the higher education learning institutes. Unlike the traditional control kind of leadership that gets followers to work through fear and obedience, servant-leadership achieves the same outcome through trust and respect.The leader’s ability to relate with followers and empathize in their situation enables a bond of trust to form between the two parties. People who trust their leaders are able to share openly on information and ideas that will enable development of the society (Shugart, 1999). Notably, transformational leadership also creates a bond of trust where the leaders can delegate duties to the employees while they explore other opportunities for success (Hawkins, 2009). The employees work on the basis of trust and loyalty irrespective of the gain.Trust as cited by Cassel and Holt (2008) can be achieved where the leaders avoid micro managing all aspects in the organizations and let the followers develop through decentralization of leadership. Thomas and Wohlstetter (2010) compare the development progress of various district schools in relation to the community, and their findings reveal that leadership determined the success of the projects a lot. Success was observed where the leaders participated on a hands-on basis rather than control and micromanaging.The society needs people who are empowered to get involved in successful ventures and is only through being led by a servant-leader. The educational institutes need leaders who have the ability to listen, lead and link (Normore 2010). This is also in accordance to the leadership trait outlined by Spear (1998). Listening to subordinates requires a leader with humility, and the trait of humility is associated with servants, unlike in the much upheld transactional leadership where commanding authority is preferred to humbleness.Shugart (1999) highlights the unfortunate situation where transactional leadership has borne egocentric leaders who lead, not on a visionary basis but by their ability to force their own thoughts on followers; a dictatorship kind of rule. Basing in thi s century where transfer of knowledge and innovation are the order of the day, it will be difficult for a powerful authoritative leader to encourage the followers’ thinking into substantiality, and this means that other than the theoretical aspect, the students in universities are not equipped with self- innovative skills where servant-leadership is lacking.Leading entails that the leader is a steward. A steward, according to Shugart (1999) is one who leads the college thoughtfully through challenging times, with the future in focus. A steward ensures that the vision of the college comes to life and is felt at both institutional and societal level. Similarly to Normore (2010), Shugart (1999) agrees that change and continuity should be in coexistence. A steward therefore is responsible in linking the university to the larger society through coherence in terms of communication, diplomacy, persuasion and pubic advocacy (p. 1).According Boyum (2008), values are incorporated in st ewardship. A servant-leader is grounded in values, manages by values and has vision or foresight just as implicated in Spear’s traits of servant- leadership. The issue of values is significant in the context of educational leadership. Familiarly, there have been concerns about practices of turning institutions into business ventures. Earning from an investment cannot be considered evil as such, but it is the practices behind the venture that raises eyebrows; and this entails venturing in both ethical and non ethical practices as long as money is forthcoming.This is one issue that calls for quality management of educational institutions, and it is time that academic institutions face a turnaround in leadership. Normore (2010) highlights that higher education institutes hold greater influences on the lives of students in the future, in relation to the university academy and the society at large. Therefore, leadership practices considered to be ethical and of value should be tau ght and implemented at this stage of the students lives (Herman &Marlowe, 2005). Normore’s (2010) observation aligns with that of Boyum (2008) and Shugart (1999) concerning service to the individual and the society.The component of service to the society was stressed by Robert Greenleaf (Boyum, 1998) an outstanding philosopher in the work of servant-leadership. If these qualities of leadership can enable the higher education institutes to overcome challenges in the 21st century, and place themselves in better positions to achieve their visions in the future; and if these qualities are innate in the servant-leaders, (Wis, 2002) then it is time that higher education institutions embrace servant-leadership in actual practice.Many educational leaders admit that these are tough economic times, and coping with such time require a change of management styles at the institutions (Negron, 2010). However, there are no significant changes embraced in terms of attaining a leadership styl e that can enable higher education institutes cope with the situation. Negron (2010) reviews the quotations of various personalities like policy makers, philanthropists and university presidents among others where the common agenda was to initiate campaign leadership that calls for structures which fit in today’s society.A 2008 study by Waks is illustrated by Ellet (2010) which involved two dozens of influential educational philosophers who were willing to write about their early and current experiences in the field of education, through a semi-structured and open-ended questions interview prepared by Waks (2008). The purpose was to find out the rationale under which a concept is determined through empirical research. The educators point on the importance of using conceptual analysis through critical thinking for the purpose of developing and defending educational goals that are of importance.This means that the students’ rights to quality education despite the proprie ty expectancy of the institution must be upheld. Students need to be equipped with knowledge and skills that will enable them to survive well in the society as well as contribute to the society’s development. Importantly, students need to be equipped with good leadership skills to enable them become good leaders after their teachers (Moore & Berry, 2010; Bowman, 2005). This can only be achieved if there a high coordination and mutual corporation between the associates, superiors and subordinates of the institution.Together they can identify the requirements of the students at the present era and sort out the kind of curricular to be incorporated in the education system. However, where self-interests exceed the societal expectation, it will be difficult to come up with honest, visionary strategies that will benefit students and the community. Servant-leadership therefore requires that the leader be grounded in values (Boyum, 2008) as already stated. A leader who foregoes his d esire to make a lot of money at the expense of the kind of education delivered on the universities.A leader filled with awareness and is able to reconcile the education system with the changing environment. A leader who empathizes with the followers’ situation and is able to make it up to them, that is a leader who is proud to see others excel as a result of the leadership tactics. Hawkins (2009) reports that there is a demand for new community college leaders as the elder ones retire, but the issue of contention is, how well are these new leaders prepared for the task of quality leadership (Moore & Berry, 2010).Although servant-leadership has not garnered substantial empirical evidence to showcase its utilization in educational leadership, there are existing isolated cases of servant- leadership, known to benefit the institution and therefore highly regarded. Richardson (2008) records an interview that reflects a servant-leader. Lisa Harrold, an emerging leader in Steger Sch ool District indiscriminately engages both teachers and students towards attaining their goals. Teachers are provided for all the requirements needed to help students achieve their goals at high levels despite the students’ weaknesses.Crippen (2005b. ) points on the changed leadership style in University of Manitoba. Servant-leadership as indicated by the author can enable schools attain democratization which many schools are adopting. Crippen (2005a, b. ) recommends that schools incorporate servant-leadership through first, reading, discussing and analyzing Greenleaf’s concept of a servant-leader. Secondly, those schools can incorporate the ten qualities of servant-leadership in the development of the school plans. Importantly, the society should be considered in the leadership and development programs of schools.SanFacon and Spears (2010) are proprietors who value servant-leadership. In their work, they describe, three domineering components of servant-leadership; fi rst, the motive behind the leadership process (what is the intention of serving people? ). Second, they state that servant- leadership is defined by the means of achieving the intentions, and third; servant-leadership focuses on the end (that is, the outcome of the leadership process). Changes bring the desire to change leadership styles in the organizations depending on the prevailing circumstance.Globalization and general advancement in knowledge and technology require that educational systems impart students with skills and knowledge that will enable them suit in the current society and meet its needs. Greenleaf’s model of servant-leadership is believed to include the necessities that higher education facilities require to educate the future generation. However, schools have been known to literally propose servant-leadership for their organizations but never practice it in reality. Servant-leadership is based on moral authority, and unlike transactional leadership, servant -leadership warrants a proactive rather than a control leader.Servant-leadership is based first on serving others before self, unlike in transformational leadership. Teachers who are servants are highly regarded because of the transformation of their quality work to their students and the society at large. Changes are taking place, and the old generation of teachers is going into retire. The society is at risk of losing virtuous leaders if servant-leadership is not embraced in reality in the school curricular. There is a wake up call for school leaders to stimulate the innate leadership qualities in teachers and students.The ten qualities of servant-leadership were described to be innate in all individuals by Greenleaf. Further research should focus on determining the quantity of these innate values in the population. References Bowman, R. (2005, July). â€Å"Teacher as servant-leader. † Clearing House, Vol. 78 (6); 257-259. Boyum, G. (2008). The historical and philosophical influences on Greenleaf’s concept of servant- leadership: Setting the stage for theory building. University of Minnesota. Cassel, J. & Holt, T. (2008). â€Å"The servant-leader: Mature and thoughtful board members work for the common good-not for individual gain.† American School Board Journal. Crippen, C. (2005a. ). â€Å"Inclusive education: A servant-leadership perspective. † Educational Canada, Vol, 45(4); 19-22. Crippen, C. (2005b. ). â€Å"The democratic school: First to serve, then to lead. † Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, Vol, 1(47); 1-17. Ellet, F. (2010). â€Å"Leaders in education: Intellectual self portraits. † Ed. Leonard, Waks. Stud Philos Educ, Vol, 29: 315-320. Hawkins, C. (2009). Leadership theories-managing practices, challenges, suggestions. Michigan: The Community College Enterprise. Herman, D.& Marlowe, M. (2005). â€Å"Modeling meaning in life: The teacher as servant leader. † Reclaiming Chil dren & Youth, Vol. 14(3); 175-178. Moore, R. & Berry, B. (2010). â€Å"The teachers of 2030. How will the teaching profession change in the next 20 years? † Educational Leadership; 36-40 Negro, M. (2010). â€Å"Campaign leadership: New heights for summit. † Currents, Vol, 36(5); 49. Normore, A. (2010). â€Å"Michael Fullan and Geoff Scott, turnaround leadership for Higher Education. † Higher Education, Vol, 59(6); 801-803 Richardson, J. (2008). â€Å"Emerging leader engages students, teachers.† Phi Delta Kappan intenational. SanFacon, G. & Spears, L. (2010). â€Å"Servant-leaders: Embody motive, means and ends. † Leadership Excellence. Michigan: Executive Excellence Publishing. Silva, E. (2010, May). â€Å"Rebuilt it and they will come. † Educational Leadership, Vol, 2: 60- 64 Shugart, S. (1999). A brief philosophy of community college leadership. Florida: Valencia Community College. Thomas, A. & Wohlstetter, P. (2010). Six keys to success: Districts attempting urban reforms can learn from these strategies that work. † American Sch

The Diagnostic and Statistical

People have their own personal faith and belief. Our cultural and parental upbringing influence our life’s principles and beliefs. We may encounter differences with other people based on views and perception on things. And these differences among people comprise the earth’s diversity. There are people who are intolerant of other’s opinion and prejudice. They are also raged by other people belonging from a different race or ethnic background (â€Å"Bigot†). They may also feel outraged by other’s lifestyle and identities that are different from their own. Bigotry is the characteristic and attitude of a bigot.It is the corresponding mindset of people who are extremely judgmental other people. Bigot is a term used in describing people who are firmly devoted in their prejudices, especially when their views are threatened or challenged. It is used to refer to people who hold blindly and intolerantly of their personal creed, opinion and belief (Adamson 200 ). Bigot is often mistaken by people as prejudice. Most people are confused between the two words. Prejudice happens when we tend to easily judge someone or something based solely on our personal opinion or attitude. Prejudice is also a learned behavior.We are taught of what to think about people of different gender, race and disability. It is influenced by our parents and neighborhood. Bigotry is hate. It is a form of prejudice carried to an extreme manner (Martin 149). There are various kinds of bigotry such as religious, racial, political, national and cultural bigotry. Bigotry is most likely seen in aspects of religious and political field. Many people hold fanaticism in their religious and political views. Individuals and groups tend to be blindly deluded by the belief that their religion, race, political party, nation and culture are more superior than the others.Such beliefs made them blindly and intolerant of others (Adamson 200). Based on the canonical definition of psychop athology, it seems to apply on visceral bigotry. Bigotry is not considered as a sickness but it can be regarded as a dysfunction based on some influential definitions of psychopathology. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders define mental disorders based on distress, disability and increase in harmful effects. Alvin Poussaint, a Harvard psychiatrist, believes that bigotry fits the definition and advocates in putting it on the list.Bigotry may be a dysfunction in responding to large segments of humanity. It may constitute impairment in responding healthy and responsible ways toward the targeted groups because of irrational hatred and contempt and other negative attitudes (Martin 130). If a person professes negative remarks blaming single mothers on the impairments of the society, it may be a form of bigotry. This may be under sexism or the belief that one judged the other based on their sex or gender and not through their capability as an individual. They believe that one sex is superior than the other.This is evident in the workplace environment where performance and capabilities are judged based on sex rather than having better qualifications. Sexism may also happen at home, school and society or community (â€Å"Forms of Bigotry†). In the case of having blamed the single mothers for the social ills in the society implies many unverified perceptions toward our women, specifically our single mothers. Single mothers refer to women raising their children in the absence of the father or their husband. Being a single mother is never an easy task. They take on many difficulties in trying to raise their children while earning for a living.Single mothers do not have the aid of their husband either partially or totally. This may cause difficulty in their part. Bigots toward them may blame them for taking part on the national aid extended by the social welfare department. The government extends financial aid on poor families with unemployed h ead of the family. There are also shelters that welcome homeless individuals. Sexists may blame the single mothers for their incapability to find decent jobs and provide the needs of the children. They may also blame the single mothers if their children turned nuisance to society.The delinquency of the children is blamed on their mothers for their incapability to rear them appropriately to become good citizens of the society. If their children become problems of the society, mothers are on the line questioning their eligibility and capability as a mother. It does not question the single fathers trying to raise their children and earn a living at the same time assuming that single fathers can perform the two tasks flawlessly at the same time. This may be viewed as a bias for some women, who may do better than some single fathers.Some single fathers also may be involved in neglecting their children or other types of child maltreatment. It may be a form of bigotry for it generalized si ngle mothers as the culprit of social ills in the society. Being a sexist undermines the qualifications and abilities of people belonging on the other sex to take on a job or task. A sexist may view their sex as superior to others. They may view the other sex as inferior to them and not at their level. Viewing one sex as superior to other creates biases and prejudice toward the views on sex. Bigotry is involved when there is an extreme prejudice, hatred and contempt towards the other sex.Works Cited Adamson, Joseph J. What the World is Coming To?. Lincoln, NE: I Universe, Inc. , 2004. â€Å"Bigot†. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. 26 January 2009 . â€Å"Forms of Bigotry†. articleworld. org. 24 January 2006. 26 January 2009 . Martin, Mike W. From Morality to Mental Health: Virtue and Vice in a Therapeutic Culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. , 2006. Martin, Renee J. Practicing What We Teach: Confronting Diversity in Teacher Education. Albany, Ne w York: State University of New York, 1995.